PsL Monthly 1993 December/PSL Monthly Shareware CD-ROM (December 1993).iso/prgmming/dos/c/iostrm.exe/IOSTREAM

Text File | 1991-01-02 | 89.4 KB | 3,134 lines

************************* INTRODUCTION *************************

This document is a tutorial on the use of the header file <iostream.h>, as
implemented by Borland International, Inc. in its product Turbo C++.

There are 4 main sections:

   1) Header file
   2) Output
   3) Input
   4) Manipulators
   5) File I/O

These sections are actually just part of the complete set of notes on the C++
language that I use in my programming classes here in Silicon Valley. Before
you begin this tutorial, you must be familiar with C, know how to write simple
classes, have some knowledge of member functions, can create instances of
classes, etc.

I have spent many hours putting this material together, and hope that it
serves its intended purpose, which is to give CIS subscribers an understand-
ing of <iostream.h> that none of the manuals or textbooks seem to provide.
I am deeply indebted to John Dlugosz, with whom many of you are already
familiar, for taking the time out of his busy schedule, to proof-read this
tutorial. Without his help and guidance, the information contained herein
would not be as accurate and complete as (I hope!) it is. Nevertheless, if
you find an error, or have a suggestion as to how this tutorial can be
improved, please let me know.

Eric Nagler         CIS 76357,1146
P. O. Box 2483
Santa Clara, California 95055-2483


*********************** SECTION 1 --  HEADER FILE ***************************

All program examples in this tutorial include a file called <header.h>. It is
my own creation (so don't call Borland!), and is tailored to accommodate
all of the program examples. I suggest that you copy and use this header file
if you wish to execute the examples. But feel free to modify it according to
your own needs.

If the examples sometimes appear to be "scrunched" toward the left-hand side
of the screen, it's because they are designed to be shown in 40-column mode,
double height.

 ////////////////////////////////////
// My private header file for C++ programs
////////////////////////////////////

// There's also a #define ZORTECH in my Zortech header file so that I can
// write different statements to print addresses.

#define BORLAND

// OLD is defined in the cc.bat file which I use to compile Turbo C++
// using the old (version 1.2) style I/O. Therefore, use <stream.h>

#ifdef OLD
#include <stream.h>

// Otherwise, it must be version 2.0, so use <fstream.h>, which also
// includes <iostream.h>

#else
#include <fstream.h>

// Any manipulators taking a parameter will also be accommodated

#include <iomanip.h>
#endif

// I also need console I/O for the PAUSE() function

#include <conio.h>

// Include <stdio.h> for C style I/O

#include <stdio.h>

// Include these because they're used so frequently, and really don't add
// that much to the compilation time

#include <string.h>
#include <ctype.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <time.h>

///////////////////////////////////

// My private defines

#define FALSE               0
#define TRUE                !FALSE
#define AND                 &&
#define OR                  ||
#define NO                  0
#define YES                 !NO
#define EQUALS              ==
#define IS_EQUAL_TO         ==
#define NOT                 !
#define IS_NOT_EQUAL_TO     !=
#define NOT_EQUAL_TO        !=
//
#define BLANK               ' '
#define SPACE               ' '
#define ASTERISK            '*'
#define DECIMAL             '.'
#define NEW_LINE            '\n'
#define NUL                 '\0'
#define TAB                 '\t'
#define BACKSPACE           '\b'
#define BEEP                '\a'
#define FORMFEED            '\f'
#define RETURN              '\r'

///////////////////////////////////

// My private PAUSE function

void PAUSE()
{
   cout << "Press any key to "
        << "continue...\n" ;
   getch() ;
}

// My private flush-the-input-buffer manipulator until either EOF or
// new-line is found.

istream& FLUSH(istream& strm)
{
   strm.clear() ;
   char ch ;
   while (!strm.get(ch).eof() AND ch != NEW_LINE)
                         ;  // Empty body
   return strm ;
}

////////////////////////////////////
// This function prints the various I/O flags of an input stream.
// Defaults to 'cin'

void IOFLAGS(istream& stream=cin)
{
   cout << "eof state is  " << (stream.eof()
           ? "ON" : "OFF") << endl ;
   cout << "good state is " << (stream.good()
           ? "ON" : "OFF") << endl ;
   cout << "fail state is " << (stream.fail()
           ? "ON" : "OFF") << endl ;
   cout << "bad state is  " << (stream.bad()
           ? "ON" : "OFF") << endl ;
   cout << "if (!instance) returns "<< (!stream ? "TRUE" : "FALSE") << endl ;
   cout << "if (instance) returns " << (stream ? "TRUE" : "FALSE") << endl ;
}

/////////////////////////////////////
// This function prints the format flags of an output stream.
// Defaults to 'cout'

void FORMATFLAGS(ostream& stream=cout)
{
   static char* message[] =
   {
     "skipws" ,
     "left" ,
     "right" ,
     "internal" ,
     "dec" ,
     "oct" ,
     "hex" ,
     "showbase" ,
     "showpoint" ,
     "uppercase" ,
     "showpos" ,
     "scientific" ,
     "fixed" ,
     "unitbuf" ,
     "stdio"
   } ;

   cout << "FORMAT FLAGS\n" ;
   long f = stream.flags() ;
   for (int i = 0 ; i < 16 ; ++i)
   {
     if (f & 0x0001)
       cout << message[i] << endl ;
     f >>= 1 ;
   }
}

///////////////////////////////////

// Define a global instance of the
// class 'ofstream' called POUT that
// is tied to the printer

ofstream POUT("prn") ;

/////////////////////////////////////

// A manipulator that directs to the printer all subsequent output for
// the one statement in which it is found

ostream& PRINTER(ostream&)
{
   return POUT ;
}

// A manipulator that directs to the screen all subsequent output for
// the one statement in which it is found

ostream& SCREEN(ostream&)
{
   return cout ;
}

// A manipluator to set left justification

ostream& LEFT(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::left , ios::adjustfield) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipluator to set right justification

ostream& RIGHT(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::right , ios::adjustfield) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipluator to set internal justification

ostream& INTERNAL(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::internal , ios::adjustfield) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show the decimal point

ostream& SHOWPOINT(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::showpoint) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show the base on hex and octal output

ostream& SHOWBASE(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::showbase) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to suppress the showing of the base

ostream& NOSHOWBASE(ostream& str)
{
   str.unsetf(ios::showbase) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show fixed point output

ostream& FIXED(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::fixed , ios::floatfield) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show scientific point output

ostream& SCIENTIFIC(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::scientific , ios::floatfield) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show uppercase output on hex and scientific
// numbers

ostream& UPPERCASE(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::uppercase) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show lowercase output on hex and scientific
// numbers

ostream& LOWERCASE(ostream& str)
{
   str.unsetf(ios::uppercase) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to show a '+' on positive numbers

ostream& SHOWPOS(ostream& str)
{
   str.setf(ios::showpos) ;
   return str ;
}

// A manipulator to negate showing a '+' on positive numbers

ostream& NOSHOWPOS(ostream& str)
{
   str.unsetf(ios::showpos) ;
   return str ;
}

*********************** SECTION 2 -- OUTPUT *********************************

Introduction

Whenever data gets sent to a text output device, it takes on the form of a
stream of characters. For example, the floating point number 1.234 is not
stored internally as 5 characters ('1' , '.' , '2' , '3' , '4'), but rather
in a special format designed to accommodate floating point values. In character
format, this value is meaningless. Yet, if you were to print this number,
you certainly would want to have the aforementioned 5 characters appear
on your output device.

The C++ input/output mechanism provided with AT&T release 2.0
provides a series of classes that have been created to handle the problem of
sending and receiving data. This mechanism consists of many classes, some
derived from others, and some contained within others. At the lowest level,
the most fundamental operation is to manipulate the characters within some
buffer, also known as a stream. This is done by the class "streambuf".

Because input and output must be formatted to be legible, another class
called "ios" contains functions and data to handle this task. When an instance
of the class "ios" comes into existence, it receives a pointer to some
"streambuf" area. To send the actual formatted output to the user, another
class called "ostream" (which is derived from "ios") is used.

Classes, like built-in scalar types, don't occupy any memory. What is
needed, then, is an instance, or object, of that class type. In the hierarchy
of derivation, the last class,  ostream , is the one that used to create the
instance, as follows:

   ostream cout ;

Since the instance "cout" is an instance of a class that has been derived from
parent classes, by definition it has inherited all of the data members of its
parent classes, and has all of the functionality of those classes. Also, since
this instance is defined at global scope, your program has unlimited access
to it at all times. Output operations are initiated using the instance "cout".

In addition to data members, classes can contain functions to operate upon
these members. In the class  ostream , the function you will use the most
often is called the insertion operator, and its name is "operator<<". The
argument to this function is the data item that you wish to output. The name
'insertion' comes from the fact that you are 'inserting' items into an
output buffer.

In a manner similar to that of accessing a data member of a structure,
function members of a class are also accessed using the direct member
operator, also known as the dot operator (.). This is done by first writing
the instance, followed by the dot operator, and then the function name with
any arguments enclosed within parentheses. For example, to output a simple
message, you would code:

   cout.operator<<("THE ANSWER IS ") ;

where "THE ANSWER IS " is the argument to the function "operator<<".
Similarly, to output the number 65, you would code:

   cout.operator<<(65) ;

To output a new-line character, you would code:

   cout.operator<<('\n') ;

or, if you wish, a string containing nothing but a new-line character:

   cout.operator<<("\n") ;

If you really think about it, you should be asking the obvious question,
"How can a function take a single argument of different types?" In other
words, in the first call above a string (type "char*") was passed as the
argument, in the second call an integer (type "int") was passed, and in the
third a character (type "char") was passed. How can this be? The answer is
that the function "operator<<" has been "overloaded", so that many versions
of the "same function" exist within the class "ostream". The compiler is smart
enough to distinguish one version from another, so that your function call
correctly accesses the function specifically written to handle the type of
argument that you provide.

The next obvious question you should be asking is whether you have to
code a series of such function calls if more than one data item is to be
output. In other words, in the examples above, are three separate function
calls really necessary? Fortunately, the answer is no. The way the
"operator<<" function is written, a reference (address) to the calling
instance ( cout ) is returned by the function, and can therefore be used as the
calling instance for a concatenated function call. That is, the three function
calls can be written:

   cout.operator<<("THE ANSWER IS ")
       .operator<<(65)
       .operator<<('\n') ;

That's the good news. The bad news is that it's still too much coding and
still too awkward. With this in mind, the designers of C++ allow the
programmer to abbreviate the notation:

   cout.operator<<(argument1) ;

with the more convenient:

   cout << argument1 ;

and the notation:

   cout.operator<<(argument1).operator<<(argument2) ;

with the more convenient:

   cout << argument1 << argument2 ;

Note that the dot operator has been eliminated, and the function
"operator<<" has been replaced with just the insertion operator "<<".

For stylistic purposes you could write each insertion operator on its own
line. Try running this program.

  // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-01

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "THE ANSWER IS "
         << 65
         << "\n" ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Only one such occurrence of "cout" needs to be written until the end of the
statement is reached.

Of course, you could restrict each statement to having just one insertion
operator. This program produces exactly the same output as before.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-02

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "THE ANSWER IS " ;
    cout << 65 ;
    cout << "\n" ;

    return 0 ;
 }

In addition to a string, an integer, and a character, the function
"operator<<" has been overloaded to accept arguments of type "long", "float",
"double", pointer, and so forth.

******************************************************************
Bit Format Flags

Now think about a "printf" function call. It usually consists of a control
string argument and, optionally, a list of expressions to be output. The
control string contains literals which will be output exactly as shown, and
conversion specifications that indicate exactly how an expression from the
list of expressions is to appear. Each conversion specification starts with a
'%' and ends with a conversion character, e.g., 'd' for decimal format, 'c' for
character format, 's' for a string, etc. Between the start and end you may
enter various flags, the field width, base formatting, justification, floating
point precision, and so forth. Each conversion specification stands on its
own; there is no connection to any other one.

In the C++ version 2.0 stream I/O, all of the characteristics relating to how
an expression should appear apply, not to each individual expression, but to
the output stream as a whole . In other words, once you specify that decimal
format is desired, ALL integer numbers from that point on are output in
decimal format. No further action need be taken. If you decide to switch to
hexadecimal output, then all integer numbers from that point on will be
shown in their hex formats. The same is true for floating point precision.
Once it is set, it stays set for all subsequent floating point numbers. (There
is one important exception to the "set it and forget it" feature of C++
streaming that will be discussed later).

Any binary characteristic of the output stream is stored in a long
(protected) field in the class "ios". In Turbo C++ this field is called
"x_flags". (The fact that it's  protected  means that you cannot access it
directly.) Each characteristic occupies one bit of this field, which simply
means that it's either true or false; on or off; set or not set. For example,
the output state of decimal is either on or off. The same can be said for the
output states of hexadecimal and octal. Also, the state of left-justification
is either set or not set, as is its opposite, right-justification. On the other
hand, stream characteristics that require values, such as the field width and
floating point precision, are stored in integer variables.

Each binary characteristic is represented by a unique value in a field that is
part of an unnamed public enumerated type in the class "ios". This value is
represented by exactly one bit in the field. Thus, no two characteristics will
ever have the same bit position (ranging from 15 down to 0) set on. By
ORing these bits into the field "x_flags", the different states can be set with
no conflict. This allows someone examining the field "x_flags" to infer with
no ambiguity which characteristics are on and which are off.

Each binary characteristic also has a name associated with it that you may
reference. The complete list of all enumerated values is shown below.
Because these names exist within the class "ios", the name of this class must
be specified in conjunction with the scope resolution operator (::) to
unambiguously access a specific value. These are the names and values for
Turbo C++:

 NAME            VALUE    MEANING

 ios::skipws     0x0001   Skip whitespace on input
 ios::left       0x0002   Left-justification of output
 ios::right      0x0004   Right-justification of output
 ios::internal   0x0008   Pad after sign or base indicator
 ios::dec        0x0010   Show integers in decimal  format
 ios::oct        0x0020   Show integers in octal format
 ios::hex        0x0040   Show integers in hexadecimal format
 ios::showbase   0x0080   Show the base for octal and hex numbers
 ios::showpoint  0x0100   Ensure that the decimal point is shown for all
                          floating point numbers
 ios::uppercase  0x0200   Show uppercase hex numbers
 ios::showpos    0x0400   Show + for positive numbers
 ios::scientific 0x0800   Use exponential notation on floating point numbers
 ios::fixed      0x1000   Use fixed decimal output on floating point numbers
 ios::unitbuf    0x2000   Flush all streams after insertion
 ios::stdio      0x4000   Flush stdout and stderr after insertion

Because we will be examining these bits very carefully in the coming
examples, it is very useful to have a function to clearly display the status
for us. This has been done in the function "FORMATFLAGS" which is
contained in the file "header.h". This function takes one argument: an
instance of an output stream. If no argument is supplied, then the function
defaults to using the name "cout".

Try running this test. Are any of these enumerated bits in the field "x_flags"
already on when your program first gets control? This little program will
provide the answer.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-11

 // TEST THE DEFAULT OF x_flags

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
   FORMATFLAGS() ;
 }

The output of this program is:

FORMAT FLAGS
skipws
unitbuf

The next item of concern is how to turn these settings on and off. Within
the class "ios" there are several member functions provided that allow this to
be done. The first of these functions is called "setf". Remember: to call it,
you must first specify the instance name, "cout", the dot member operator,
and then the function name. Thus, you would write:

   cout.setf

The function "setf" has been overloaded to accept either one or two
arguments. In both cases, the first argument specifies which bits are to be
turned on in the field "x_flags".

For example, to turn on the  ios::dec  bit, you would code:

   cout.setf(ios::dec) ;

The function "setf" works by ORing its first argument into the field
"x_flags", thereby leaving any other bits in this field undisturbed. This means
that it's possible to turn on more than one bit with just one call to "setf" by
using an expression for the first argument that contains several bits ORed
together. For example, to turn on the "ios::dec" and the "ios::right" bits, you
would code:

  cout.setf(ios::dec | ios::right) ;

How can you turn the bits off? Use the member function "unsetf". This
function takes exactly one argument: the bit pattern to be turned off. Thus,
to turn off the bit "ios::dec", you would code:

  cout.unsetf(ios::dec) ;

Like "setf", more than one bit at a time can be turned off by ORing the
enumerated values together in the argument field.

Unfortunately, the previous method of turning bits on and off is awkward
because in many cases the bits are mutually exclusive, and it would
normally take 2 function calls to (a) turn a bit off using "unsetf", and (b)
turn another bit on using "setf". Fortunately, a better way exists by using the
"setf" function with 2 arguments. In this case the second argument represents
those specific bits which are to be turned OFF prior to having those bits
turned ON that are specified by the logical AND of the first and second
arguments. For example, to turn the bit "ios::dec" ON and ensure that the
mutually exclusive bits "ios::oct" and "ios::hex" are OFF, you would code:

   cout.setf(ios::dec , ios::dec | ios::oct | ios::hex) ;

To prove this, run this program:

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-12

 // TEST TURNING ON FORMAT FLAG BITS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::oct | ios::hex) ;
    FORMATFLAGS() ;
    cout.setf(ios::dec , ios::dec | ios::oct | ios::hex) ;
    FORMATFLAGS() ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

FORMAT FLAGS
skipws
oct
hex
unitbuf
FORMAT FLAGS
skipws
dec
unitbuf

Because "ios::dec", "ios::oct" and "ios::hex" are mutually exclusive bit fields
(that is, you only want ONE of them on at any time), you would normally
AND the one bit of the first argument of "setf" with the OR of all 3 bits, as
shown above. The second argument can also be specified as "ios::basefield",
where this value is pre-defined as: "ios::dec | ios::oct | ios::hex".

For example, program OUTPUT-12 can be re-written as:

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-13

 // TEST ios::basefield

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::oct | ios::hex) ;
    FORMATFLAGS() ;
    cout.setf(ios::dec , ios::basefield) ;
    FORMATFLAGS() ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is the same.

In a similar manner, the field "ios::adjustfield" represents the bit positions
of "ios::left", "ios::right" and "ios::internal" ORed together, and the field
"ios::floatfield" represents the bit positions of "ios::fixed" and
"ios::scientific" ORed together.

Because the field "x_flags" in the class "ios" is protected, this means that
you cannot access it directly. However, there is a public member function
called "flags" that will return this field to you. If you provide a long integer
as an argument to "flags", then the existing value of "x_flags" will be
returned to you after your argument is used to provide a new setting for
"x_flags".

For example:

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-14

 // TEST THE flags MEMBER FUNCTION

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    long value = cout.flags(0) ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << "value is "
         << value
         << '\n' ;
    FORMATFLAGS(cout) ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

value is 2001
FORMAT FLAGS
hex

Note that "value" is the old value of "x_flags", and is printed in hexadecimal.
The '2' represents the "unitbuf" bit, and the '1' is the "skipws" bit. There is
nothing shown under the heading "FORMAT FLAGS" except "hex" because
all of the bits were turned off by the call to "flags", then the hex bit was
turned back on.

Both the "setf" and "unsetf" functions return a value, which you are free to
use or ignore. The value returned is a long integer representing the
previous value of the field "x_flags". However, you will probably never
have occasion to use this value.

******************************************************************
The Base Setting and Integer Output

Output formatting is important because you want to have complete
flexibility in the manner in which your data appears. Let's start with the
base in which integers will be shown. If a "printf" function call, you have 3
choices: decimal, octal and hex. A decimal output can be obtained by using
a conversion specification of "%d" or "%i", an octal by using "%o", and hex by
using "%x" or "%X". (How to emulate lower vs. upper case will be discussed
later.) There are 3 bits in the enumerated values shown in the Bit Format
Flags section that control the base setting:

   ios::dec    0x0010     Show integers in decimal format
   ios::oct    0x0020     Show integers in octal format
   ios::hex    0x0040     Show integers in hexadecimal format

To guarantee that decimal output is used, you must turn on the bit
"ios::dec", and ensure that all the remaining 2 bits are turned off. The same
reasoning applies to octal and hex output. But we proved in example
OUTPUT-11 that no bit pertaining to the output base is on by default.
Therefore, which base will be used? The answer is that the compiler will
default to decimal output if none of the 3 base field bits is on. But be
careful! If more than one output base bit happends to be on, then the output
is unpredictable. (Of course, you would never deliberately put yourself in
this situation.). Remember: Once the base has been set, it stays set for all
future integers unless it is subsequently changed.

Recall that the field "ios::basefield" has been defined for you to contain all
3 base field bits ORed together, and should be used in the second parameter
of "setf" to ensure that all 3 bits are turned off before altering them. So now
let's create a program to output the number 65 using the default base,
followed by the base in octal, hexadecimal, and decimal. (NOTE: a better
way in which to write this program will be shown in the section on
manipulators.)

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-21

 // HOW TO PRINT IN DECIMAL, OCTAL
 // AND HEXADECIMAL FORMATS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::oct , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::dec , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program, as expected, is:

65
101
41
65

One final point: In a "printf" function call, the use of the flag # causes the
base of an octal or hexadecimal number to appear (0 and 0x, respectively).
The same effect can be achieved in C++ by setting on the bit "ios::showbase".
Here is example OUTPUT-21 again, but this time the base of the octal and
hexadecimal numbers is shown. To turn off this feature, use the "unsetf"
function.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-22

 // HOW TO PRINT IN DECIMAL, OCTAL
 // AND HEXADECIMAL FORMATS AND SHOW
 // THE BASE FOR OCTAL AND HEX
 // NUMBERS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showbase) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::oct , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::dec , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

65
0101
0x41
65

Note that on positive decimal output, a '+' sign is assumed. If you want this
sign to appear, turn on the bit "ios::showpos". (Of course, if the number is
negative, the '-' sign will always appear.) To turn off this feature, use the
"unsetf" function. In this example the number 65 is displayed with a '+' sign.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-23

 // HOW TO SHOW THE SIGN OF A POSITIVE
 // NUMBER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showpos) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

+65

There is one other option you can employ with hexadecimal numbers. By
default any hex digit, as well as the 'x' in the base, appears in lower-case.
The same rule applies to the 'e' when printing in scientific notation. If you
want to see upper-case, turn on the bit "ios::uppercase". To revert back to
lower-case, use the "unsetf" function.

This example prints the number 171 in hexadecimal, and shows all hex
digits in upper-case.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-24

 // HOW TO PRINT HEX DIGITS IN
 // UPPER CASE LETTERS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::uppercase | ios::showbase) ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 171 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

0XAB

*****************************************************************
Character Output

Integer output pertains to the display of decimal, octal and hexadecimal
numbers. The next question is: Can you emulate "%c" in a "printf" function
call to set the base for character output, i.e., set it so that all integral
values appear in their character representations? Unfortunately, the answer
is no. However, the problem only arises when a non-character value needs to be
displayed in its character form, because if you define a character using type
char , then it will automatically be shown in its character format. Thus, to
make a non-char type appear in character format, an explicit cast to type
"char" is required.

For example, this program prints the letter 'A' five times:

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-31

 // HOW TO PRINT A CHARACTER AND A
 // NON-CHARACTER IN CHARACTER
 // FORMAT.

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    // No cast needed here
    char ch1 = 'A' ;
    cout << ch1 << '\n' ;
    char ch2 = 65 ;
    cout << ch2 << '\n' ;

    // Cast needed here
    int ch3 = 65 ;
    cout << (char)ch3 << '\n' ;
    int ch4 = 0101 ;
    cout << (char)ch4 << '\n' ;
    int ch5 = 0x41 ;
    cout << (char)ch5 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

How about the opposite? That is, suppose you want a character to be shown
in its decimal, octal, and hexadecimal representations. Once again, a cast is
required, this time to type "int". By doing this cast in conjunction with the
proper base setting, the desired result can be obtained. In this example, the
character "ch" is shown in its decimal, octal, and hexadecimal
representations.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-32

 // HOW TO PRINT A CHARACTER AS A
 // DECIMAL, OCTAL AND HEXADECIMAL
 // VALUE.

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    char ch = 'A' ;

    cout << (int)ch << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::oct , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << (int)ch << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << (int)ch << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

65
101
41

There is another way to guarantee that an integral value gets shown in its
character format. That is with the use of the member function called "put"
(think of the C function "putchar"). This function always outputs its one
argument in character format, regardless of how it was defined. This
example prints the character 'A' three times.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-33

 // HOW TO USE THE MEMBER FUNCTION
 // put TO OUTPUT A CHARACTER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    char ch1 = 'A' ;
    int ch2 = 65 ;

    cout.put(ch1) << '\n' ;
    cout.put('A') << '\n' ;
    cout.put(ch2) << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

******************************************************************
Setting the Field Width

The field width in C++ works in a similar manner to that of C. If the total
number of characters needed for output is less than the specified width,
then the extra spaces will be filled with the current fill character. If the
number of characters is greater than the specified width, then the width is
'expanded' to accommodate the entire field. (In C the fill character in a
"printf" function call can only be either a zero or a space; in C++ it can be
any character you desire. This topic is dicussed following width.)

If no width is ever specified, then the default value of zero is assumed (just
as it is in C). To change the field width, use the member function "width"
with one argument: the width value itself. Then the next field to be output
will use this value.

For example, this program prints the number 1 right-justified and preceded
by 4 blanks, while the number 23 has 3 preceding blanks.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-41

 // HOW TO SET THE FIELD WIDTH

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout << 1 << '\n' ;
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout << 23 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

    1
   23

Something should strike you as odd about this example. Why was it
necessary to write the line "cout.width(5)" twice? The answer is that the
width specification only applies to the next field to be output.  To prove this
statement, let's modify this example slightly and remove the second width
setting.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-42

 // NOTE THAT THE WIDTH SETTING
 // ONLY APPLIES TO THE NEXT FIELD
 // TO BE OUTPUT

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout << 1 << '\n' ;
    cout << 23  << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

    1
23

Now the number 23 appears left-justified because the width reverted back
to its default value of 0.

In addition to setting the field width, the "width" function also returns the
value of the width just prior to the function call. If you wish to return this
value and leave it alone, then call the  width  function with no argument
specified.

IMPORTANT NOTE: Under the current implementation of Turbo C++,
the field width specification does NOT apply to character fields that are
output. This does not mean that the width reverts back to zero upon
encountering a character field, but instead is applied to the next non-
character field that is encountered. The patch IOPAT.ZIP in the
CompuServe BPROGB forum will fix this problem.

******************************************************************
Specifying the Fill Character

If the total number of characters needed to display a field is less than the
current field width, the extra output spaces will be filled with the current
fill character. In a "printf" function call, the default fill character is a
blank, and you only have the option to change it to a zero.

In C++, however, you now have the option for any character to serve as the
fill character. As before, the default is a blank. The member function "fill"
is used to specify a new fill character. Once it is specified, it remains as
the fill character unless it is subsequently changed. The function takes a
single argument: the new fill character, and returns the previous fill
character. As with "width", it may be called with no actual argument if you
merely want to return the previous fill character.

This example outputs the default fill character, changes it to an asterisk, and
then proves that the current fill character is, indeed, an asterisk.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-51

 // HOW TO SET THE FILL CHARACTER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    const char quote = '\'' ;
    char old_fill = cout.fill('*') ;
    cout << "Old fill character is "
         << quote
         << old_fill
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    cout << "It was changed to "
         << quote
         << cout.fill()
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

Old fill character is ' '
It was changed to '*'

Now let's re-run example OUTPUT-41, but this time we'll fill the first
field with zeroes, and the second with asterisks.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-52

 // A COMBINATION OF SETTING THE
 // FIELD WIDTH AND SPECIFYING
 // THE FILL CHARACTER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout.fill('0') ;
    cout << 1 << '\n' ;
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout.fill('*') ;
    cout << 23 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

00001
***23

******************************************************************
Field Justification

Whenever a field gets output, and the field width is greater than the number
of characters needed to display the field, the data is always right-justified
with the fill character used as padding to the left. (Of course, if the field
width is less than or equal to the number of characters needed, no
justification occurs and the fill character is ignored.)

Recall that there are 3 bits which are used to set the field justification:

 ios::left      0x0002     Left-justification of output
 ios::right     0x0004     Right-justification of output
 ios::internal  0x0008     Pad after sign or base indicator

If no bit is set in the field "x_flags", then the justification defaults to
right. Once the justification has been set, it remains set unless it is sub-
sequently changed. As with setting the base, there is a field called
"ios::adjustfield" which has been defined with all 3 justification bits turned
on. When setting the justification, this field should be used as the second
argument in the "setf" member function call to ensure that the other 2 bits are
turned off. To set the justification to left, use the member function "setf"
with the bit "ios::left", and to change it back to right, use the bit
"ios::right".

Here is example OUTPUT-41 again, this time with both fields left-justified.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-60

 // HOW TO LEFT-JUSTIFY A FIELD

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::left , ios::adjustfield) ;
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout.fill('0') ;
    cout << 1 << '\n' ;
    cout.width(5) ;
    cout.fill('*') ;
    cout << 23 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

10000
23***

The justification resulting from the "ios::internal" bit means that padding
with the fill character, if any, will occur after the base of the number has
been shown (for octal and hexadecimal numbers) and before the number
itself. In the case of decimal numbers, the padding will occur after the sign
('+' or '-') and before the number itself. That is, instead of padding
occurring on the left or on the right, it occurs "in the middle".

In this example, the base is shown, the fill character is set to '=', the
internal  bit is set on, the field width is set to 10, hexadecimal output is
requested, and the number 65 is printed. Then the same number is printed
again, but with left justification.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-61

 // HOW TO DO INTERNAL JUSTIFICATION

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showbase) ;
    cout.fill('=') ;
    cout.setf(ios::internal , ios::adjustfield) ;
    cout.width(10) ;
    cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;
    cout.setf(ios::left , ios::adjustfield) ;
    cout.width(10) ;
    cout << 65 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

 The output of this program is:

0x======41
0x41======

******************************************************************
Floating Point Output

Floating point numbers are output in C++ just like any other type of
number. However, the formatting is certainly different, and default values
are not the same as you would get from using a "printf" function call.

In this example some floating point constants are output.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-70

 // DISPLAY SOME FLOATING POINTS
 // CONSTANTS WITHOUT ANY FORMATTING

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << 1.2300 << '\n' ;
    cout << 4.00 << '\n' ;
    cout << 5.678E2 << '\n' ;
    cout << 0.0 << '\n' ;
 }

The output of this program is:

1.23
4
567.8
0

For the first constant, note that the 2 trailing zeroes were not printed. This
is certainly different from "printf" in which the default is to show 6
positions after the decimal point. In the second case, not only do the trailing
zeroes  not  show, but even the decimal point does not appear. In the third
case, the number prints in fixed point notation despite being keyed in
scientific notation. In the final case, at least one significant digit will
always appear.

Thus, we can infer that by default, all trailing zeroes, even the decimal
point, will be suppressed. If you really want to emulate how the "printf"
function works, you need to turn on the "ios::showpoint" bit. To revert
back to the default value, use the function "unsetf" to turn it off. Here is
the same example with this bit now on in the field "x_flags".

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-71

 // HOW TO EMULATE printf

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showpoint) ;
    cout << 1.2300 << '\n' ;
    cout << 4.00 << '\n' ;
    cout << 5.678E2 << '\n' ;
    cout << 0.0 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

1.230000
4.000000
567.800000
0.000000

The next step is to override the default of 6 decimal positions. To do this,
use the member function "precision" in which the one argument is the
number of decimal positions to be shown. This function also returns the
previous value of the precision. If it is called without an argument, it
merely returns the current value of the precision and does not alter it. The
default precision is 0.

Here is the same example with the precision now set to 1.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-72

 // HOW TO EMULATE printf AND SET
 // THE PRECISION

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showpoint) ;
    cout.precision(1) ;
    cout << 1.2300 << '\n' ;
    cout << 4.00 << '\n' ;
    cout << 5.678E2 << '\n' ;
    cout << 0.0 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

1.2
4.0
5.7e+02
0.0

Note that the third answer is displayed in scientific notation. To guarantee
that all output is shown in either fixed decimal or scientific notation, recall
that the following bits are pre-defined in the class "ios":

   ios::scientific     0x0800    Use exponential notation on floating
                                 point numbers
   ios::fixed          0x1000    Use fixed decimal output on floating point
                                 numbers

If neither bit is turned on, then the compiler emulates the "%g" conversion
specification in a "printf" function call. Also recall that there is a constant
called "ios:floatfield" that is the value of these two bits ORed together, and
may be used as the second argument in a "setf" function call.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-73

 // HOW TO EMULATE printf AND SET
 // THE PRECISION

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout.setf(ios::showpoint) ;
    cout.precision(2) ;

    // Guarantee fixed decimal
    cout.setf(ios::fixed , ios::floatfield) ;
    cout << 1.2300 << '\n' ;
    cout << 4.00 << '\n' ;
    cout << 5.678E2  << '\n' ;
    cout << 0.0 << '\n' ;

    // Guarantee scientific
    cout.setf(ios::scientific , ios::floatfield) ;
    cout << 1.2300 << '\n' ;
    cout << 4.00  << '\n' ;
    cout << 5.678E2<< '\n' ;
    cout << 0.0 << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

1.23
4.00
567.80
0.00
1.23e+00
4.00e+00
5.68e+02
0.00e+00

******************************************************************
Printing addresses

The address of a variable (or instance of a class) can be generated by using
the address operator (&). Because the address operator can be applied to a
wide variety of types (both built-in and user-defined), the type of argument
can theoretically be "pointer to int" or "pointer to float" or even 'pointer to
my class type'. To accommodate all of these various types, the class
"ostream" contains an overloaded function "operator<<" to handle all such
argument types. This function is prototyped to accept an argument of type
"void*" which, according to the rules of argument matching, is acceptable to
the compiler as a "match".

In Turbo C++, this address is always shown in 32-bit (4 byte) hexadecimal
form, even though the default output base is decimal .

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-80

 // HOW TO PRINT AN ADDRESS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number ;

    cout << "Address of number as a\n"
         << "  32-bit hex is "
         << &number
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

If you wish, you may view this address in decimal by using a cast to an
unsigned long.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-81

 // HOW TO PRINT AN ADDRESS IN
 // DECIMAL AS AN UNSIGNED LONG

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number ;

    cout << "Address of number as a\n"
         << "  long integer is "
         << (unsigned long)&number
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

But since addresses are stored in 2 bytes when using the small memory
model, it's probably better to cast to an "unsigned int".

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-82

 // HOW TO PRINT AN ADDRESS IN
 // DECIMAL AS AN UNSIGNED INT

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number ;

     cout << "Address of number as an\n"
          << "  unsigned int is "
          << (unsigned)&number
          << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

When dealing with a string, a problem arises. It's the same problem that
occurred in C in a program fragment such as:

  char* ptr = "ABC" ;
  printf ("%s" , ptr) ;

No doubt the user will see "ABC" as the output. The problem is how to print
the ADDRESS contained within the pointer variable "ptr". The solution in C is
to provide a different conversion specification, namely "%p".

In C++ this program fragment:

  char* ptr = "ABC" ;
  cout << ptr ;

would also output "ABC" because the argument "ptr" is of type "char*" which
matches exactly an overloaded "operator<<" that accepts an argument of
type "char*". To emulate the "%p" in C++, you must override the built-in
type of "char*" with the type "void*" so that the "operator<<" function that
outputs an ADDRESS will be called instead.

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-83

 // HOW TO PRINT AN ADDRESS OF
 // A STRING

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    char* ptr = "ABC" ;

    cout << "The string itself is "
         << ptr
         << '\n' ;

    cout << "The address of the"
         << "string is "
         << (unsigned)(void*)ptr
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

******************************************************************
Binary output

It's possible to take any internal representation of a C++ type and output it
as though it were just an array of characters. For a type such as "float", this
will produce meaningless output, but it may be useful for integers. To do
this, the member function  write  must be used. This function takes 2
arguments: The first is the address of the data to be output, and the second
is the number of bytes to be shown. Note that in the case of a string, the
null byte is treated just like any other byte.

Because the function "write" is declared to accept an argument of type
"char*", if the item you wish to print is not of this type, then the address
must be generated using the address operator, and then cast to type "char*".

 // EXAMPLE OUTPUT-90

 // HOW TO DISPLAY THE BINARY REPRE-
 // SENTATION OF A NUMBER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    long number = 0x414243 ;

    cout.write((char*)&number , sizeof(number)) ;
    cout << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Note that the output of this program is "CBA", because the address of a "long"
refers to the low-order byte.

************************ SECTION 3 -- INPUT *********************************

Introduction

In addition to being able to use classes to control output, C++ stream I/O
classes also handle all input. Just as output consists of a stream of characters
being sent to some device, input consists of characters coming in from some
device and being translated into their proper defined type. In other words,
the characters '1', '2' and '3' could be the string '123' or the integer 123,
depending upon the type of the receiving field. Unlike output, the realm of
possibilities for 'formatting' simply does not exist when inputting data.

The class "istream" is derived from the class "ios", and it controls the input
handling functions. The global instance that is defined for you is called "cin",
and is defined as:

   istream cin ;

In addition to data members, the class "istream" contains functions to
operate upon these members. The function you will use the most often is
called the extraction operator, and it is written as:

   operator>>

The argument to this function is the variable name that you wish to contain
the input. The name 'extraction' comes from the fact that you are
'extracting' (taking) data from the input stream.

For example, to input an integer, you would code:

   int number ;
   cin.operator>>(number) ;

As with the insertion operator, this code can be replaced with the simpler
form:

   int number ;
   cin >> number ;

Note that the type of the input variable determines how the characters from
the input stream are to be stored.

For example, this program inputs a number, character and float, and then
echoes them back.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-01

 // HOW TO INPUT SOME SIMPLE TYPES

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number ;
    cout << "Enter a number: " ;
    cin >> number ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << number
         << '\n' ;

    char ch ;
    cout << "Enter a character: " ;
    cin >> ch ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << ch
         << '\n' ;

    float fl ;
    cout << "Enter a float: " ;
    cin >> fl ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << fl
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The extraction operator, like the insertion operator, can be chained
together.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-02

 // EXTRACTION OPERATORS CAN BE
 // CHAINED TOGETHER

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number1 , number2 ;
    cout << "Enter 2 numbers: " ;
    cin >> number1 >> number2 ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << number1
         << " and "
         << number2
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Recall from the discussion on output that numbers can be displayed in
either their decimal, octal, or hexadecimal representations. This is done by
changing the base setting of the output stream. In a similar fashion, the base
of the input stream can be changed from its default setting of decimal to
either octal or hexadecimal. This is how the "%o" and "%x" conversion
specifications in a "scanf" function call can be emulated. For example, this
program prompts the user for numbers in decimal, octal, and hexadecimal
formats, then echoes each number back. Note that the output is always in
decimal because the setting of the output base has not been affected. In
other words, the base setting is stored separately for each stream.
Obviously, if an illegal input value is entered, the value will not be stored.
(NOTE: Borland Turbo C++ version 1.00 had a bug in regard to the
inputting of octal and hex numbers, but it was corrected in version 1.01.)

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-03

 // INTEGERS CAN BE INPUT IN ANY OF
 // 3 DIFFERENT BASES

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    int number ;

    cout << "Enter a decimal number: " ;
    cin >> number ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << number
         << endl ;

    cout << "Enter an octal number: " ;
    cin.setf(ios::oct , ios::basefield) ;
    cin >> number ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << number
         << endl ;

    cout << "Enter a hex number: " ;
    cin.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;
    cin >> number ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << number
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

If the operator enters 65 for all 3 prompts, then the output of this program
is:

65
53
101

*****************************************************************
Character Input

Characters may be read in using either the extraction operator ">>" or the
member function "get" (think of the C function "getchar"). If the extraction
operator is used, then leading whitespace is bypassed and the first non-
whitespace character is fetched. Also, a reference to the invoking instance is
returned. In this example, enter some spaces and tabs before striking a
character and <RETURN>.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-11

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // CHARACTER AND BYPASS LEADING
 // WHITESPACE

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    const char quote = '\'' ;

    cout << "Enter a character: " ;
    char ch ;
    cin >> ch ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << quote
         << ch
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Another method to read a character is to use the member function "get". This
can be done in two differenct ways. The first takes one argument: the
character variable name pass in by reference. It returns a reference to the
invoking instance. The difference between the extraction operator ">>" and
"get" is that "get" does not use the format flags, so it does not bypass
leading whitespace. In this example, enter some spaces and then another
character. You will see that the first space gets entered into the variable.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-12

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // CHARACTER AND RETAIN LEADING
 // WHITESPACE USING get(char&)

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    const char quote = '\'' ;

    cout << "Enter a character: " ;
    char ch ;
    cin.get(ch) ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << quote
         << ch
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The other function using "get" takes no input argument (just like "getchar" in
C) and returns a value of type "int", which represents the character just read,
or the "EOF" constant if either (a) end-of-file was detected, or (b) no
character could be read. This function is unique in that it does not set
'failbit'. The other unformatted extractors will set 'failbit' if called at
end-of-file time, so that no other characters can be read.

Here is example INPUT-12 repeated, but now it uses "get()" and checks for
end-of-file. Because the variable "ch" must be defined as type "int", don't
forget the cast in order to display it as a character.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-13

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // CHARACTER AND RETAIN LEADING
 // WHITESPACE USING get()

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    const char quote = '\'' ;

    cout << "Enter a character: " ;
    int ch ;
    ch = cin.get() ;
    if (ch != EOF)
       cout << "You entered: "
            << quote
            << (char)ch
            << quote
            << '\n' ;
    else
       cout << "End-of-file\n" ;

    return 0 ;
 }

******************************************************************
String Input

As with character input, strings may be entered using the extraction
operator or the overloaded member function "get". With the extraction
operator, leading whitespace is bypassed, and the first whitespace
encountered terminates the input. (This acts just like the function "scanf".)

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-21

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // STRING AND BYPASS WHITESPACE
 // TOTALLY (LOOKS LIKE scanf)

 #include <header.h>

 const int length = 100 ;

 int main()
 {
    char string [length] ;
    const char quote = '\"' ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin >> string ;
    cout << "Your string: "
         << quote
         << string
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

But just like "scanf", the possibility exists for a program hang or crash if
the operator enters more characters than can safely be accommodated by the
string array. In other words, run this program and enter more than 10
characters.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-22

 // IT'S POSSIBLE TO OVERFLOW AN
 // ARRAY WHEN INPUTTING A STRING

 #include <header.h>

 const int max = 10 ;

 int main()
 {
    char array[max] ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin >> array ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << array
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

If it didn't bomb, consider yourself lucky. To guard against this disaster,
you may set the width of the input stream to physically limit the number of
characters that will be stored. This is done by using the member function
"width" in the class "istream". Run this program and enter the letters 'A'
through 'M'. Note that only the letters 'A' through 'I' got stored into the
string (the last byte is always reserved for the null character) and the
remaining characters remain in the input buffer.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-23

 // HOW TO AVOID OVERFLOWING AN
 // ARRAY WHEN INPUTTING A STRING
 // WITH THE EXTRACTION OPERATOR

 #include <header.h>

 const int max = 10 ;

 int main()
 {
    char array[max] ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin.width(max) ;
    cin >> array ;
    cout << "You entered: "
         << array
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Caution: Just like the "width" function used for output, the input "width"
function only applies to the next item to be input.

Another way to read in strings is to use the member function  get  with 3
arguments. (Note the similarity to the C function "fgets".) The first
argument is the address of the string area, the second is the maximum
number of characters (less 1) than can be read in, and the third specifies the
terminating character (the one that will stop the transfer of characters from
the buffer into the string array). This third argument defaults to the value
'\n', which is the <RETURN> key. Note, however, that if it is changed to
some other character, then the <RETURN> key must still be pressed for
the input action to cease. Both leading whitespace and embedded
whitespace are retained as part of the string value.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-24

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // STRING AND RETAIN WHITESPACE,
 // BOTH LEADING AND EMBEDDED

 #include <header.h>

 const int length = 100 ;

 int main()
 {
    char string [length] ;
    const char quote = '\"' ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin.get(string , length) ;
    cout << "Your string: "
         << quote
         << string
         << quote
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

A slight variation on the function "get" taking 3 arguments is the function
"getline". The only difference is that "getline" extracts the newline character
('\n') from the input buffer, whereas "get" leaves it alone (and, presumably,
must then be flushed by the programmer). In Turbo C++ version 1.01, this
newline character is made part of the string, even though the A T & T spec
does not say to do this.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-25

 // TEST getline FUNCTION

 // NOTE THAT THE LAST DOUBLE QUOTE
 // APPEARS ON THE FOLLOWING LINE
 // DUE TO THE INCLUSION OF THE
 // NEWLINE CHARACTER IN string

 #include <header.h>

 const int length = 100 ;

 int main()
 {
    char string [length] ;
    const char quote = '\"' ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin.getline(string , length) ;
    cout << "Your string: "
         << quote
         << string
         << quote ;

    return 0 ;
 }

******************************************************************
Checking for End-Of-File

When reading data from the keyboard or a file, the programmer must
always be on guard for the occurrence of an end-of-file mark (in DOS it's
the character ^Z or decimal value 26 from text files). This is comparable to
detecting the value "EOF" when doing a "scanf" in C.

In C++, the member function "eof" in the class "istream" taking no arguments
will report 'true' if the end-of-file condition was found, 'false' if not
found.

Normally data is obtained within a 'while' loop, with the loop continuing to
execute as long as end-of-file is  not  detected. This situation could be coded
like this:

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-31

 // ENTER A NUMBER AND LOOP
 // UNTIL EOF IS DETECTED

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "Enter a number: " ;
    int num ;
    cin >> num ;
    while (!cin.eof())
    {
       cout << "You entered: "
            << num
            << '\n' ;
       cout << "\nNext number: " ;
       cin >> num ;
    }

    return 0 ;
 }

While this program certainly works, there is a better way to code it. Since
the statement:

   cin >> num ;

returns a reference to the invoking object itself (namely "cin"), this object
can be used as the invoking object for the "eof" member function call. Thus,
the revised code looks like:

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-32

 // A BETTER METHOD OF CODING
 // EXAMPLE INPUT-31

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "Enter a number: " ;
    int num ;
    while (!(cin >> num).eof())
    {
      cout << "You entered: "
           << num
           << '\n' ;
      cout << "\nNext number: " ;
    }

    return 0 ;
 }

Notice how the read and check for end-of-file have been combined to form
the Boolean condition of the 'while' loop.

******************************************************************
Checking for Errors

Unfortunately, we live in an imperfect world. People don't smile, cars
crash, checks bounce, and data entry operators don't always do what they're
supposed to do. This means that as a programmer you must be responsible
for making your code as 'operator-proof' as possible. In other words, no
matter what the user may enter as 'data', your program must capture it and
successfully trap all error conditions to avoid such catastrophes as 'garbage
in, garbage out', aborts, hangs, endless loops, etc.

When expecting character or string input, there's not too much that can go
wrong, other than array overflow which has already been covered. But
with numeric data, such as "int"s, "float"s and "double"s, only certain
keystrokes in a prescribed order and considered to be valid. For example,
when you expect a decimal integer to be input, the user may enter a sign (+
or -) followed by the digits 0 through 9. An entry of A12 is obviously
invalid. An entry such as 12A, however, is considered to be the number 12,
with the "invalid" character 'A' serving to terminate the numeric portion of
the input stream. In addition, any whitespace character terminates a
numeric entry, and all leading whitespace characters are bypassed
automatically.

There are several ways to check for 'garbage' input when expecting valid
numeric data. Within the class "istream" the member function "good" will
return 'true' if the preceding operation succeeded, 'false' otherwise. In
addition, the member function "fail" will do just the opposite.

Another way to check for an input error is to use the overloaded "operator!"
(Boolean not) on the instance of "istream". This operator will return
'true' if an error occurred, 'false' otherwise. Similarly, testing the
instance itself as a Boolean value will return 'true' if the input was good,
'false' otherwise.

Note that in the header file <header.h> the function "IOFLAGS" has been
defined to accept an instance of an input stream as an argument, and will
display the various input states. The default argument is the instance "cin".
To test this, trying entering some numeric and non-numeric data for this
program, as well as end-of-file.

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-41

 // TEST THE INPUT STREAM STATES

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "Enter a number: " ;
    int number ;
    cin >> number ;
    IOFLAGS() ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Now that you see what does and does not work, the next problem is how to
eliminate the excess, or garbage, characters from the input stream. This can
be accomplished by reading 1 character at a time until the <RETURN>
('\n') character has been read. (Of course this method assumes that if an
error condition is encountered, then the integrity of the remaining
characters in the buffer is in question.) In addition, when an error occurs,
the status of the input stream is changed from 'good' to 'fail' and  no more
characters can be read until the status is reset to 'good' . To do this, you
must call upon the "istream" member function "clear" with no arguments (the
default argument is 0, which means 'set the status of the stream to 'good'').

To save you the trouble of having to code a function to accomplish this
'flushing' task, the file <header.h> has a manipulator called FLUSH that will
do this for you. (The subject of manipulators and how they work will be
covered in the section on manipulators.)

Thus, an 'operator-proof' program that loops while reading numbers and
checking for end-of-file and garbage input might resemble this:

 // EXAMPLE INPUT-42

 // SHOW HOW TO HANDLE ANYTHING
 // THE OPERATOR CAN THROW AT
 // THE PROGRAM

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "\nEnter a number: " ;
    int number ;
    while (!(cin >> number).eof())
    {
      // Test for a bad number
      if (!cin)
        cout << "Input error!\n" ;

      // Process a good number
      else
        cout << "YOU ENTERED: "
             << number
             << endl ;

      // Clear out the input buffer.
      cin >> FLUSH ;

      cout << "\nNext number: " ;
    }
    cout << "\nEND OF PROGRAM\n" ;

    return 0 ;
 }

One note about the logic of this program. If 2 valid numbers are entered
before the user presses <RETURN>, then only the first number will be
processed; the second will be flushed. You may or may not want this to
happen, depending upon your design philosophy.

************************ SECTION 4 -- MANIPULATORS ************************

Introduction

As you have probably noticed by now, the elimination of conversion
specifications ("%d", "%c", etc.) found in the "scanf" and "printf" functions
in C causes you to do a lot of extra coding to accomplish the same end result.
For example, to output a number in hex, the specification "%x" does the job
in a "printf" statement, but with <iostream.h> you have to write:

  cout.setf(ios::hex , ios::basefield) ;

before outputting the number itself.

Fortunately, the input and output stream classes provide the capability to
eliminate much of this tedious coding, as well as a method to combine the
setting of the stream state with the actual outputting (or inputting) of the
data itself. This method uses what is called a 'manipulator'. The term
comes from the fact that a manipulator does just what it implies: it
manipulates, or changes, the state of the stream.

In the same sense that a call of a function causes that function to do any
number of individual tasks the programmer may specify, a manipulator is
also a function that sets the stream state. The input and output classes come
with some manipulators already built in, and a nice feature is that you can
easily define your own.

The one peculiar aspect about manipulators is that they are always called
'indirectly' by a separate function. This other function knows which
individual manipulator to call because it has the manipulator's  address  as
its one argument. How does it get this address? When the name of a function is
written without the open and close parentheses, the compiler generates the
address  of the function instead of actually calling the function. This address
can, in turn, be passed as an argument to another function. Of course, this
address must be stored into a variable declared as 'pointer to function' and
which has the proper return type and argument list.

In this example the address of the function "print" is passed as an argument
to the function called "test", stored into the pointer variable called "ptr",
and then executed via the statement "ptr();". Note that this is the same as
coding (*ptr)();

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-01

 // HOW TO PASS THE ADDRESS OF A
 // FUNCTION AS AN ARGUMENT

 #include <header.h>

 // Function declarations

 void print() ;
 void test(void (*)()) ;

 int main()
 {
    test(print) ;

    return 0 ;
 }

 void print()
 {
    cout << "print function\n" ;
 }

 void test(void (*ptr)())
 {
    ptr() ;
 }

Since the manipulators to handle input and output stream states can be
chained with other arguments, then (assuming output) generically they have
the form:

  cout << data-item1 << manipulator << data-item2 ;

In order to preserve the ability to concatenate successive calls to the
insertion operator function, each manipulator function must adhere to the
rule that the invoking instance is always passed in by reference and
returned by reference. This means that all manipulator functions have the
format:

 ostream& manipulator_name(ostream& strm)
 {
   // your code here
  return strm ;
 }

In a similar fashion, all input manipulators have the format:

 istream& manipulator_name(istream& strm)
 {
   // your code here
  return strm ;
 }

To accommodate an argument of type 'pointer to function', the class
"ostream" has an overloaded insertion operator similar to this:

 ostream& operator<<(ostream& (*ptr)(ostream&))
 {
  return (*ptr)(*this) ;
 }

 The class  istream  has an overloaded insertion operator similar to this:

 istream& operator<<(istream& (*ptr)(istream&))
 {
  return (*ptr)(*this) ;
 }

It's these two functions that call upon your manipulator function whose
address has been stored into the pointer variable "ptr".

As a test, here is a program that creates a manipulator function called
"manip" that sets the field width to 5 and the fill character to '*'.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-02

 // HOW TO PASS CREATE YOUR OWN
 // MANIPULATOR

 #include <header.h>

 ostream& manip(ostream& strm)
 {
    strm.width(5) ;
    strm.fill('*') ;
    return strm ;
 }

 int main()
 {
    cout << manip
         << 23
         << '\n' ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

***23

******************************************************************
Built-in Manipulators Taking No Arguments

Because some output (and input) stream manipulations are done so
frequently, the header file <iostream.h> includes some pre-defined
manipulators. These manipulators may take no arguments, or 1 argument.
Let's first consider some built-in manipulators that take no arguments.

As the first example, the manipulator "endl" is designed to output a new line
character and flush the output buffer. Use may use this in place of '\n'. For
example,

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-11

 // THE endl MANIPULATOR

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << 1
         << endl
         << 2
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

1
2

The manipulators "dec", "oct" and "hex" work for both input and output
operations, and set the stream state accordingly. For example,

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-12

 // SETTING THE STREAM STATES USING
 // MANIPULATORS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << "Input a hex number: " ;
    int number ;
    cin >> hex >> number ;
    cout << "The number in octal is "
         << oct
         << number
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

If you enter the number '1f' (hex), you will then see the number 37 (octal).

Recall that when using the function "get" with 3 arguments to read in a
string, both leading and embedded whitespace are retained. If you want to
bypass the leading whitespace, and still retain the embedded whitespace,
then use the input manipulator "ws". In this program enter some leading
whitespace, then some significant characters including embedded
whitespace.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-13

 // DEMONSTRATE HOW TO READ IN A
 // STRING AND RETAIN EMBEDDED
 // WHITE SPACE, BUT BYPASS
 // LEADING WHITE SPACE

 #include <header.h>

 const int length = 100 ;

 int main()
 {
    char string [length] ;
    const char quote = '\"' ;

    cout << "Enter a string: " ;
    cin >> ws ;
    cin.get(string , length) ;
    cout << "Your string: "
         << quote
         << string
         << quote
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

There is one other built-in manipulator that takes no argument: "ends". This
causes a null character to be output, and is useful for objects of type
strstream .

******************************************************************
Built-in Manipulators Taking 1 Argument

Because a manipulator that takes 1 argument requires special handling by
the compiler, a separate header file  must  be included with each program.
This file is called <iomanip.h>. Note that in the file <header.h> it is
automatically included.

Perhaps the most frequently used manipulator taking an argument is "setw".
Like its counterpart, the member function "width()", it is used to set the
field width  for the next output item only.  But since manipulators are
designed to be coded 'in line' with data to be output, they do not return a
value (which would cause spurious data to appear in the output buffer). The
one argument is, of course, the field width itself.

Here is example OUTPUT-41 again, this time using a manipulator to set the
field width.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-21

 // HOW TO SET THE FIELD WIDTH
 // USING A MANIPULATOR

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << setw(5)
         << 1
         << endl ;
    cout << setw(5)
         << 23
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

Another frequently used manipulator is the one that sets the fill character.
It is called "setfill" and, as you would expect, the 1 argument is the fill
character itself.

Here is example OUTPUT-52 again, this time using manipulators to set the
field width and fill character.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-22

 // A COMBINATION OF SETTING THE
 // FIELD WIDTH AND SPECIFYING
 // THE FILL CHARACTER USING
 // MANIPULATORS

 #include <header.h>

 int main()
 {
    cout << setw(5)
         << setfill('0')
         << 1
         << endl ;
    cout << setw(5)
         << setfill('*')
         << 23
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The other manipulators that take an argument are:

   resetiosflags(long flag)  -- turns off the bits specified in "flag"
                                (input and output)
   setbase(int base)  -- sets the output base to decimal if "base" if 0
                         or 10; to octal if "base" is 8; to hexadecimal
                         if "base" is 16 (output)
   setiosflags(long flag)  -- turns on the bits specified in "flag" (input
                              and output)
   setprecision(int prec)  -- sets the number of digits displayed after the
                              decimal point to "prec" (output)

******************************************************************
Creating Your Own Manipulators Taking 1 Argument

The explanation of how manipulators taking 1 argument are handled by the
compiler is too complex to be explained here, so let's just see how it is
coded.

First, the generic form (assuming output) of the manipulator is:

 ostream& manipulator-name(ostream& strm , type arg)
 {
   // your code here using arg
   return strm ;
 }

where "type" is either "int" or "long", and "arg" is the formal argument name.

Next, you must include this code:

 OMANIP(type) manipulator-name(type arg)
 {
    return OMANIP(type) (manipulator-name , arg) ;
 }

where "OMANIP" is a class defined in <iomanip.h>.

For example, here is a manipulator called "manip" that sets the field width to
whatever the argument happens to be, and also sets the fill character to '*'.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-31

 // HOW TO CREATE A MANIPULATOR THAT
 // TAKES 1 ARGUMENT

 #include <header.h>

 ostream& manip(ostream& strm , int length)
 {
    strm << setw(length) << setfill('*') ;
    return strm ;
 }

 OMANIP(int) manip(int length)
 {
    return OMANIP(int) (manip , length) ;
 }

 int main()
 {
    cout << manip(7)
         << 123
         << endl ;
    cout << manip(5)
         << 45
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

****123
***45

If you wish to use a type other than "int" or "long", then you must include the
following statement:

  IOMANIPdeclare(type) ;

where "type" is either "char", "float", "double", etc.

Here is the same example, but now it is the fill character that is variable.

 // EXAMPLE MANIP-32

 // HOW TO CREATE A MANIPULATOR THAT
 // TAKES 1 ARGUMENT, AND THAT ARGUMENT
 // IS NOT int OR long

 #include <header.h>

 // Don't forget this statement
 IOMANIPdeclare(char) ;

 ostream& manip(ostream& strm , char ch)
 {
    strm << setw(7) << setfill(ch) ;
    return strm ;
 }

 OMANIP(char) manip(char ch)
 {
    return OMANIP(char) (manip , ch) ;
 }

 int main()
 {
    cout << manip('*')
         << 123
         << endl ;
    cout << manip('$')
         << 45
         << endl ;

    return 0 ;
 }

The output of this program is:

****123
$$$$$45

Finally, take a look at the file <header.h> for some useful manipulators that
have already been defined for you.

************************* SECTION 5 -- FILE I/O ****************************

Introduction

File input/output using <iostream.h> involves any of these 3 operations:

 1) Reading a file
 2) Writing a file
 3) Both reading and writing a file

To handle these operations, special classes have already been defined. They
are:

 Read -- class  ifstream  (derived from  istream )
 Write -- class  ofstream  (derived from  ostream )
 Both -- class "fstream" (derived from  iostream )

To use any of these classes, you must:

  #include <fstream.h>

which automatically includes the header file <iostream.h>. (The file
<fstream.h> is already included in <header.h>.)

There are no pre-defined instances of these classes comparable to "cin" and
"cout". Therefore, the first step in using file I/O is to create an instance of the
appropriate class, e.g.,

  ifstream file_in ;
  ofstream file_out ;
  fstream  file_both ;

****************************************************************
Using the instances

The first step in using the file instances is to open the disk file. In any
computer language this means establishing a communication link between
your code and the external file. Each of the 3 classes provides the member
function called  open  to do this. The declarations for these  open  functions
are as follows:

  void ifstream::open(const char* name ,
                      int m = ios::in ,
                      int prot = filebuf::openprot) ;

  void ofstream::open(const char* name ,
                      int m = ios::out ,
                      int prot = filebuf::openprot) ;

  void fstream::open(const char* name ,
                     int m,
                     int prot = filebuf::openprot) ;

The first argument is the external file name passed in as a constant string
literal.

The second argument is the file mode, and comes from a  public
enumerated type in the class "ios". There are eight possible modes, as
follows:

    ios::in        Input mode. (Default for input file.)
    ios::out       Output mode. (Default for output file.)
    ios::app       Append to an output file rather than update an existing
                   record.
    ios::ate       Position file marker at end of file instead of beginning.
    ios::trunc     Delete file if it exists and re-create it.
    ios::nocreate  File must exist, otherwise open fails (output only)
    ios::noreplace File must not exist, otherwise open fails (output only)
    ios::binary    Binary mode; default is text (Binary is a Borland
                   enhancement)

Note that for "fstream" instances, there is no default mode. Obviously, these
various modes may be bitwise ORed together if more than one is desired.

The third argument is the file access. Under Turbo C++ version 1.01, the
possible values are:

    0 = Default
    1 = Read-only file
    2 = Hidden file
    4 = System file
    8 = Archive bit set

If the open fails, the overloaded "operator!" used on the instance will
return 'true'.

For example:

    file_in.open("INPUT") ;
    file_out.open("OUTPUT") ;
    file_both.open("BOTH" , ios::in | ios::out) ;

An alternate method of calling the open function is to call the constructor
with the same argument(s) that you would use for the "open". Thus, instead
of creating the instance and then explicitly calling the "open" function, you
can combine these two steps by writing:

   ifstream file_in("INPUT") ;
   ofstream file_out("OUTPUT") ;
   fstream  file_both("BOTH", ios::in | ios::out) ;

When you are done using the file, the member function "close" taking no
arguments will close it. This function is called automatically by the
destructor for the class, but you may call it explicitly if you wish.

Let's start with a simple program that accepts string input from the user
and writes it to a disk file called "OUTPUT.DAT".

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-01

// CREATE AN OUTPUT FILE AND WRITE
// WHATEVER DATA THE OPERATOR MAY
// ENTER

#include <header.h>

const int max = 100 ;

////////////////////////////////////

int main()
{
   char buffer[max] ;
   ofstream file_out("OUTPUT.DAT") ;
   if (!file_out)
   {
      cout << "OPEN FAILED\n" ;
      PAUSE() ;
      exit(1) ;
   }

   cout << "Enter a line of data: " ;
   while (!cin.get(buffer , max).eof())
   {
      file_out << buffer << endl ;
      cout << "Next line: " ;
      cin >> FLUSH ;
   }

   return 0 ;
}

Now give the user a chance to append more records to the file. Note that
the mode of the file is "ios::out | ios::app" (although "ios::app" by itself
would still have worked).

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-02

// GIVE THE USER A CHANCE TO APPEND
// RECORDS TO THE FILE

#include <header.h>

const int max = 100 ;

////////////////////////////////////

int main()
{
   char buffer[max] ;
   ofstream file_out("OUTPUT.DAT" , ios::out | ios::app) ;
   if (!file_out)
   {
      cout << "OPEN FAILED\n" ;
      PAUSE() ;
      exit(1) ;
   }

   cout << "Enter a line of data: " ;
   while (!cin.get(buffer , max).eof\())
   {
      file_out << buffer << endl ;
      cout << "Next line: " ;
      cin >> FLUSH ;
   }

   return 0 ;
}

Finally, this program numbers and prints the records that were just written.

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-03

// NOW READ THE FILE THAT WAS JUST
// CREATED

#include <header.h>

const int max = 100 ;

////////////////////////////////////

int main()
{
   char buffer[max] ;
   ifstream file_in("OUTPUT.DAT") ;
   if (!file_in)
   {
      cout << "OPEN FAILED\n" ;
      PAUSE() ;
      exit(1) ;
   }

   int rec = 0 ;
   while (!file_in.get(buffer , max).eof())
   {
      cout << "Record #"
           << ++rec
           << ": "
           << buffer
           << endl ;
      file_in >> FLUSH ;
   }

   return 0 ;
}

****************************************************************
The File Position Markers

So that the file I/O classes can keep track of where in a file the data is
to be written to and read from, they establish what is called a 'file position
marker' (fpm). On Turbo C++ this marker has been 'typedef'ed as a 'long'
integer representing an offset value from the beginning of the file. In point
of fact, there are two such markers, one for reading, and one for writing.
You may alter these markers by using two member functions: "seekg" and
"seekp". "seekg" is associated with the file's 'get or read' pointer, and
"seekp" with the file's 'put or write' pointer. The declarations for these two
functions are as follows:

  istream& istream::seekg(streampos offset) ;
  istream& istream::seekg(streamoff offset , seek_dir) ;

  ostream& ostream::seekp(streampos offset) ;
  ostream& ostream::seekp(streamoff offset , seek_dir) ;

where "streampos" and "streamoff" represent "long" integers, and "seek_dir"
is an enumerated type defined as follows:

  enum seek_dir {ios::beg , ios::cur , ios::end} ;

If the 1-argument form of the function is used, then "offset" is the offset
from the beginning of the file. If the 2-argument form is used, then "offset"
is the offset number of bytes (positive or negative) from the absolute
"seek_dir" position. Therefore, a call to "seekg" with an argument of 0 causes
the file to rewind and data to be read starting with the first record.

To find out the positions of these markers, you may use the member functions
"tellg" and "tellp". They are declared as follows:

  streampos istream::tellg() ;
  streampos ostream::tellp() ;

To illustrate this, here is the previous example of writing and reading a
file, but now it uses an instance of the class "fstream" so that the output and
input can be combined. After each record is read and printed, the file
position marker (fpm) is displayed. NOTE: The inclusion of the mode
"ios::binary" is to avoid a Borland bug with "tellg" corrupting the fpm.

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-04

// HOW TO WRITE AND READ A FILE IN
// THE SAME PROGRAM

// NOTE: FILE IS OPENED IN BINARY
// MODE TO AVOID A tellg BUG IN
// TURBO C++

#include <header.h>

const int max = 100 ;

////////////////////////////////////

int main()
{
   char buffer[max] ;
  "fstream"file_both("BOTH.DAT" ,
                      ios::in |
                      ios::out |
                      ios::binary) ;
   if (!file_both)
   {
      cout << "OPEN FAILED\n" ;
      PAUSE() ;
      exit(1) ;
   }

   cout << "Enter a line of data: " ;
   while (!cin.get(buffer , max).eof())
   {
      file_both << buffer << endl ;
      cout << "Next line: " ;
      cin >> FLUSH ;
   }

   // Flush the output buffer
   file_both << flush ;

   // Return to the start of the file
   file_both.seekg(0) ;

   // Read and print the records, and
   // show the file position marker
   int rec = 0 ;
   while (!file_both.get(buffer , max).eof())
   {
      cout << "Record #"
           << ++rec
           << ": "
           << buffer
           << endl ;
      cout << "fpm is: "
           << file_both.tellg()
           << endl ;
      file_both >> FLUSH ;
   }

   return 0 ;
}

This program gives the user complete flexibility as to the name of the
external file to be manipulated, and modes to be used. NOTE: Do not try to
include an instance of a file class within a class declaration. As of version
1.01, there is a bug which does not allow this. As an avoidance technique,
you may include a pointer of the class type, and then obtain the space for
the instance via the "new" operator.

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-05

// GIVE THE USER COMPLETE FLEXIBILITY
// AS TO THE MODE OF THE FILE AND THE
// DATA WRITTEN AND READ

// ARGUMENTS ARE ENTERED FROM THE DOS
// COMMAND LINE. THE FIRST ARGUMENT
// IS THE DISK FILE NAME, AND THE
// REMAINING ARGUMENTS REPRESENT THE
// VARIOUS OPEN MODES, EXACTLY AS
// SPECIFIED BY THE ENUMERATED TYPES

// NOTE THAT A CLASS IS NOW USED TO
// CONTROL THE VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON
// A FILE OBJECT. HOWEVER, A POINTER
// IS DECLARED INSTEAD OF AN INSTANCE
// TO AVOID A BORLAND BUG

#include <header.h>

const int max = 100 ;

class file
{
   fstream* ptr ;
     public:

   file()
   {
      ptr = new fstream() ;
   }

   int open(int argc , char* argv[]) ;
   void read() ;
   void write() ;
   void beginning() ;
   void end() ;
   void close() ;
} ;

// Open the file by setting up the
// field 'mode' with the OR of what-
// ever modes the user has chosen

int file::open(int argc , char* argv[])
{
   int mode = 0 ;

   for (int i = 2 ; i < argc ; ++i)
   {
      if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "out"))
          mode |= ios::out ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "in"))
          mode |= ios::in ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "app"))
          mode |= ios::app ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "ate"))
          mode |= ios::ate ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "trunc"))
          mode |= ios::trunc ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "nocreate"))
          mode |= ios::nocreate ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "noreplace"))
          mode |= ios::noreplace ;
      else if (!strcmp (argv[i] , "binary"))
          mode |= ios::binary ;
      else
          cout << "Invalid mode: "
                << argv[i]
                << endl ;
   }

   // Perform the actual open
   ptr->open(argv[1] , mode) ;

   // If an error occurred, return
   // "true"
   return (!*ptr) ;
}

// Read the file

void file::read()
{
   char buffer [max] ;

   cout << "Data line: " ;
   ptr->get(buffer , max) ;
   *ptr >> FLUSH ;
   if (!(ptr->eof()))
      cout << buffer << endl ;
   else
      cout << "EOF\n" ;
   ptr->clear() ;
}

// Write the file

void file::write()
{
   char buffer [max] ;

   cout << "Enter some data: " ;
   cin.get(buffer , max) ;
   cin >> FLUSH ;
   *ptr << buffer << endl ;
}

// Return to the start of the file

void file::beginning()
{
   ptr->seekg(0) ;
   ptr->seekp(0) ;
}

// Seek to the end of the file

void file::end()
{
   ptr->seekg(0 , ios::end) ;
   ptr->seekp(0 , ios::end) ;
}

// Close the file

void file::close()
{
   ptr->close() ;
}

///////////////////////////////////

char menu() ;

int main(int argc , char* argv [])
{
   file my_file ;

   if (argc < 2)
   {
      cout << "NO FILE NAME\n" ;
      exit(1) ;
   }

   if(my_file.open(argc , argv))
   {
      cout << "OPEN FAILED\n" ;
      exit(2) ;
   }

   char ch ;
   while ((ch = menu()) != 'X')
   {
      switch (ch)
      {
        case 'R' : my_file.read() ;
                   break ;
        case 'W' : my_file.write() ;
                   break ;
        case 'B' : my_file.beginning() ;
                   break ;
        case 'E' : my_file.end() ;
                   break ;
        default :  cout << "INVALID\n" ;
                   break ;
      }
   }
   my_file.close() ;

   return 0 ;
}

///////////////////////////////////////

char menu()
{
   cout << "\t(R)ead a record\n" ;
   cout << "\t(W)rite a record\n" ;
   cout << "\t(B)eginning of file\n" ;
   cout << "\t(E)nd of the file\n" ;
   cout << "\te(X)it\n" ;

   cout << "\n\tYour choice: " ;
   char ch ;
   cin >> ch >> FLUSH ;
   return (toupper(ch)) ;
}

****************************************************************
Using the Line Printer

The line printer is just another output file insofar as DOS is concerned. To
redirect output to a printer from within your program, use the predefined
name "prn".

// EXAMPLE FILEIO-06

// HOW TO PRINT FROM WITHIN A
// PROGRAM

#include <header.h>

int main()
{
   ofstream printer ;
   // "prn" is the DOS printer
   printer.open("prn") ;
   if (!printer)
   {
     cerr << "Can't open\n" ;
     exit(1) ;
   }
   printer << "This line appears"
           << " on the printer\n" ;

   return 0 ;
}